Prior to World War One, European Politics Played A Large Role In The Middle East:
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Impact on the Ottoman Empire:
Middle Eastern Independence:
These were the dates that all imperial influences of France, Britain, and Russia left these Middle Eastern States.
1941 – Iran
1943 – Lebanon
1944 – Syria
1946 – Jordan
1947 – Egypt & Iraq
Cold War and the Middle East:
Following WWII, the United States and the Soviet Union began a Nuclear Arms Race that was known as the Cold War.
The Middle East became a strategic area of interest because of their oil reserves.
About two-thirds of world’s known oil reserved located in Middle East
Reserves have been great source of wealth for Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, other countries
Most members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OPEC attempts to regulate production of oil exports to maximize revenues
Oil revenues allowed Middle East governments to modernize countries, promote industrialization, economic, social development
Oil as source of conflict in Middle East:
Some governments have used oil revenues to build up military, maintain power, threaten neighbors
Oil wealth has caused internal clashes within countries, societies
Region’s strategic importance as source of oil has led outside nations to become involved in Middle Eastern affairs, politics
The Strength of Islamic Fundamentalism:
Fundamentalism-refers to a belief in a strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often religious in nature), sometimes as a reaction to perceived doctrinal compromises with modern social and political life.
Religion defines political identity
Can be found in:
India and Pakistan—Hindu v. Muslim, Kashmir conflict
Iraq and Iran—Sunni v. Shia
Israel—United Jerusalem
United States—Conservative movement
Islamic Fundamentalism:
Movement to reorder government, society according to Islamic laws
Islamists believe Muslim countries have strayed from true Islam, followed Western models of political, economic development
Some extremists have used violence to bring about changes, have attacked regional governments, their allies, innocent civilians
Over 1 billion Muslims worldwide
Only one of four Muslims is an Arab
Multiple interpretations of “jihad”
Triumphant beginning
Conflict with Christian powers
Domination of Muslims by others
“Muslim pride”
Pan-Arab (ummah) sentiment
Palestinian Liberation Organization
Yet much diversity within Islam—ummah unlikely
Iraq-Iran war (conflict between countries)
Nationalism still prevalent
Sectarianism: Shiites versus Sunnis
Traditionalists (Iran) versus secularists (Morocco)
Ethnic differences within Islam
Deep-seated anti-Western sentiments
Ex: Iran Friday Prayers Chant
Fueled by Iraq war, Western support of autocratic and repressive regimes in the Middle East, and Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Perceptions of Western secular threats to Islamic cultural traditions and mores
People more open to Western culture than leaders (rural Iran)
History of Iraq: British Control:
This region was part of the Ottoman Empire in the 1500’s.
During WWI, Great Britain set up the Kingdom of Iraq and put a Pro-British ruler into power.
In 1941, a group of Iraqi Nationalists that wanted to be independent and began to revolt against the British governing them with the help of the Nazi’s.
This was during WWII and the British violently ended the revolt in 1 month.
Following this Britain also invaded Syria and Lebanon in order to maintain order in the Middle East.
Baath Party and then Rise of Saddam Hussein:
In the 1950’s this government was overthrown.
After a series of other governmental changes the Ba’ath Party too power in 1968.
A Ba’ath leader named Saddam Hussein became the president.
Saddam Hussein was a harsh ruler. He controlled the press, restricted personal freedoms and killed numerous political enemies.
Iraq was the second largest oil exporter in the world.
Iraq-Iran War: 1980-1988:
Assassination attempt on Iraqi official named Tariq Aziz by a Shiite extremist group backed by Iran named DAWA
Contested rights to waterway called Shatt Al Arab along the border of Iran and Iraq
Saddam hoped to annex, or conquer, a part of Iran where many Arabs lived
But remember… there are deeper, more complicated issues between Iraq and Iran
Saddam Hussein of Iraq was:
Modern, western government
Sold oil to US
Secular, laws not based on Koran
Sunni Arab
Known support of terrorists (Abu Nidal)
Wanted to make Iraq the leading state in the Middle East
Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran was:
Came to power through revolution in 1979
Shiite Persian
Created Islamic theocracy
Held Americans hostage in US Embassy in Iran for 444 days
Supported Hezbollah, a known terrorist organization which attacked Israel
In 1980 Iraq invaded Iran.
Saddam Hussein was worried that the Shia Islamic revolution that was taking place in Iran would spill over into Iraq.
Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of the chaos in Iran and invade without being noticed.
The Iranians fought back and the Iraq/Iran war continued until 1988. Both countries suffered.
This was a war between a Saddam Hussein led Iraq vs. Ayatollah Khomeini’s Iranian Army.
Iraq Invaded Iran in 1980.
At the time Iran was a bitter enemy of the U.S. with Iran taking U.S. Hostages in 1979. This was protest against U.S. involvement in the Iranian Government. So the U.S. supported Iraq in the war.
Iraq used Chemical Weapons against Iran on several occasions.
Attempting to provide stability in order to establish a Democratic government
Training a national army/ police force
Patrols through cities
Leading raids on suspected insurgents
New Government:
Should Iraq be divided up into 3 separate nations?
Problem:
North (Kurds): Oil. Water resources
Sunni (North): No water or oil resources
Shia (South): Oil/ water resources. Connection to Iran
Dec. 2005: Parliamentary elections successfully held
Democracy is established
Meanwhile, coalition worked to create new, democratic government in Iraq
2004, power transferred to Iraqis
2005, Iraqis voted in country’s first multiparty election in fifty years
Later approved new constitution to make Iraq Islamic federal democracy
Continued violence, potential for civil war made country’s future highly uncertain
Results:
In 2003, nearly 85% of American citizens, and Congress, supported the invasion of Iraq.
In 2009, about 20% of American citizens support the current invasion of Iraq.
Why the change?
No WMDs were ever found.
Iraqi suicide bombers (loyal to Saddam Hussein) continue to interfere with any progress the U.S. makes in Iraq.
Fewer Iraqi citizens support us than in 2003. (Don’t see enough progress)
The new democratic Iraqi gov’t continues to have problems.
As of 2009, a majority of American citizens see the Iraq War as a waste of the last 6+ years, a waste of the 4,000 American soldiers killed, believe Iraq has nothing to do with the “War on Terror,” and believe we should remove our soldiers from the country immediately.
However, others say one of the main reasons we have not had another Sept. 11th attack is because we removed Saddam Hussein from power before he had the chance to harm the United States, and believe that we should stay in Iraq until it is safe – no matter how long that takes.
Current 142,000 troops will be reduced to 25-30,000 by end of 2010.
Iraqi Army / police will take on more responsibility
US troops will be based outside of cities
For support of Iraqi troops
US troops will leave Iraq by end of 2011
Saddam Hussein captured
Tried and executed
4,287 US troops killed
Over 30,000 US troops wounded
Over 60,000 Iraqi’s killed
$657 Billion so far
Costs to America:
History of Iran:
Historically known as Persia until 1935, when Reza Shah Pahlavi asked for the country to be called by its native name
Iran means “Land of the Aryans”
Persia derived from ancient Greek name for Iran, Persis
Name comes from a region in southern Iran called Pars
North: former Soviet Republics
South: Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman
East: Afghanistan, Pakistan
West: Turkey, Iraq
Major Cities: Tehran, Tabriz, Mashhad, Esfahan, Shiraz
In 1921, an Iranian military officer took power claimed the old Persian title of “Shah”, or king.
In 1941 the Shah’s son took control who was an ally to the United States and Britain.
He also wanted to modernize Iran.
During WWII, Iran was an ally of the Nazi’s.
So the USSR and Britain invaded the country in 1942 in order to secure oil fields.
Following WWII, the Soviet Union refused to leave Iran until 1946, when the United States threatened to invade Iran and remove the Soviets by force.
Ruled Iran from the crowning of Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925 to the overthrow of Reza Shah Pahlavi's son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
By the mid-1930s Reza Shah's dictatorial style of rule caused dissatisfaction among some groups
Dynasty collapsed following widespread uprisings in 1978 and 1979.
Its collapse marks a break in the ancient tradition of Iranian monarchy.
1953 CIA Coup of Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh, Prime Minister of Iran
Shah Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941 – 1977)
Institutes Western reforms & ties with the West .
But, the majority of his people live in poverty.
Brutal suppression of dissidents SAVAK
Land reform – 90% of Iran’s peasants became land owners.
Massive government-financed heavy industry projects.
Granted women more political power – the right to vote.
Poured government money into education – especially in rural areas where illiteracy was very high.
Profit-sharing for industrial workers.
Nationalization of forests and pasture lands
Iranian Revolution: 1979 Causes:
The Shah spent the oil profits for top of the line
American military hardware.
Little money to reinvest back into the Iranian economy.
Religious leaders angry with the Shah for too much
“Westernization.”
Government corruption.
The Shah’s constitutional violations of the basic human rights of his citizens.
The Shah spent the oil profits for top of the line
American military hardware.
Little money to reinvest back into the Iranian economy.
Religious leaders angry with the Shah for too much
“Westernization.”
Government corruption.
The Shah’s constitutional violations of the basic human rights of his citizens.
Opponents of Shah:
Oil field workers
Students and other intellectuals
Middle class businessmen
Iranian nationalists
Muslim clerics.
Effects of Iranian Revolution:
Transformed Iran from a monarchy under Pahlavi dynasty to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.
It has been called the third great revolution in history
Helped make Islamic fundamentalism a political force
Iran became an Islamic theocracy, ruled by Sharia Law
The new government was anti-American (“The Great Satan”) and anti-Israeli
Hostage crisis and the Iran-Iraq War
Relations with the United States broke down.
In 1979, a mob of Iranian students took American’s hostage.
The Iranian government gave permission for the Americans to be taken hostage.
The Americans were held by force for over 1 year.
Anti-Iranian feeling in US (sale of Iranian flags actually increased!)
President Carter seen as having failed to gain release of hostages
Conservative Republican President Ronald Reagan won 1980 Presidential election in US
Hostages released on Reagan’s inauguration in exchange for $8 billion ($5 billion was used by Iran to pay debts to US anyway)
Khomeini needed money with war against Iraq looming
1980s: Strained Relations with United States:
52 U.S. diplomats held hostage by group of Iranian terrorists who took over American embassy in support of the Islamic revolution.
444 day hostage crisis ended in 1981
The incident was seen by many as a blow against U.S. influence in Iran and its support of the recently fallen Shah of Iran, Pahlavi, who had recently been allowed into the United States for cancer treatment.
In Iran, the crisis is thought to have strengthened the political hold of radical anti-American forces who supported the hostage taking.
The crisis also marked the beginning of American legal action, or sanctions, that weakened economic ties between Iran and America.
Iran Since the Death of Khomeini:
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Born 1956
Engineer, Party: Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran
Elected mayor of Tehran in 2003
Won ~60% of the popular vote in 2005 presidential election
Outspoken and often controversial for his views on Israel, the US, Great Britain, and human rights
Iran’s government has supported many hard-line policies.
For example: call for the destruction of Israel
For example: supported terrorist groups
Afghanistan:
Afghanistan is a land-locked country with very high mountains.
The Khyber Pass is a narrow passage through the Hindu Kush Mountains that lie between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Merchants, warriors, and missionaries have long used the Khyber Pass to reach India.
Characteristics of the People of Afghanistan (Demographics):
History of Afghanistan:
Afghanistan was made up little tribes, but these tribes united to fight off Alexander the Great in 327 BC.
Then in 642 AD, the Islamic Empire swept in and took control of western Afghanistan, converting much of the population to Islam.
Then in 1826, British and Russian forces fought each other, in Afghanistan. The citizens of Afghanistan fought against the British troops three times, and on August 19, 1919, defeated the British for the last time, and British troops left the country.
From there, political unrest dictated Afghanistan life, with several powers coming and going until 1979.
Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan:
-The Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979 in order to support the Communist Party’s push for power in the Country.
The opposing side was an Islamic Fundamentalist, Osama Bin Laden being one of them, group that was supported by the United States and Western Allies.
In 1979, (around the same time as the Iranian Revolution discussed earlier), The Soviet Union sent troops to Afghanistan to help the communist government there in a civil war.
This led to a long war between Soviet troops and Afghan rebels (Mujahedeen).
The United States was supporting the Afghan rebels.
In 1989, an alliance of Afghan rebel groups took power and the Soviet troops left.
Then the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to set up a pro-Moscow government.
For the next 9 years, a civil war broke out with different tribes of Afghanistan against and with the Soviet forces.
The Soviets pulled out in 1989, but they left a pro-Moscow government who fell with the Soviet Union in 1992.
Over 1 million Afghans were killed. 5 million Afghans fled to Pakistan and Iran.
Another 2 million Afghans were displaced within the country.
Vital parts of the Afghan economy were destroyed including Irrigations systems to provide water for farming
In 1989, the Soviet finally withdrew from Afghanistan
Rise of the Taliban:
In 1995, the Taliban, promising traditional, Islamic values came into power, imposing strict Islamic law, including revoking many women’s rights.
Turmoil in Afghanistan continued and in the mid-1990’s a radical Muslim group called the Taliban arose.
The Taliban took over most of Afghanistan and ruled strictly.
The Taliban forced women to wear veils and stop working outside the home.
Taliban came to power in most Afghanistan by 1996.
Osama bin Laden moved his terrorist activities there.
Used mountain hideouts as a base of operations for his terrorist network called al-Qaeda.
Prior to 2001, the Taliban, led by Mullah Mohammad Omar, ruled Afghanistan under Islamic law.
During this time, women had virtually no rights and received no education.
Watching television and listening to music were forbidden, as were playing games and sports.
The United States entered Afghanistan in October 2001 and replaced the Taliban with an elected president.
While the Taliban lost some power and the people regained some rights, the Taliban has not gone away.
Instead, it has worked to regain power by promising to help Afghanistan’s poorest people and aligning itself with warlords, al-Qaida, and other militant groups to gain financial support and recruit new fighters.
Taliban rules: Women
Must always be escorted in public by male relative and wearing burqa.
Must not wear high heeled shoes (sound of women’s footsteps excite men).
Cannot speak in public
Women cannot be seen from street—all ground and first floor windows must be painted over.
No photography of women
Place names not to be women’s
May not appear on balconies
May not appear in the media
Long-Lasting Effects on Women:
Although the new constitution guarantees equal rights an opportunities for both men and women…that is not always the case.
Health care
Child birth
highest maternal death rate
in the world
Male doctors
Men & boys take precedence
in the few emergency rooms
that exist (very few hospitals after Taliban rule)
The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks were traced to Osama bin Laden and his al Qaeda network based in Afghanistan.
Al-Qaeda cells operate in African countries as well.
1998 bombings occurred at the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania leaving 200 dead and more than 5,000 people injured.
The U.S. responded with missile strikes against terrorist facilities in Afghanistan and Sudan. Bin Laden was based in Sudan from 1991-1996.
The Destruction:
Fuel—The flights were near their start, therefore the tanks were full. Explosions and fires weakened the skyscrapers, and both towers fell within two hours.
Pentagon damage confined to only one section of the building.
Human Death Toll: about 3,000
All passengers
WTC workers/visitors
340 NYC firefighters
60 NYC police officers
2001 Anthrax Scares:
5 deaths (including 2 postal workers)
17 infections
Suspected perpetrator: Bruce Edward Irvins (died July 29, 2008 of suicide after he was informed he would be prosecuted for murder), a microbiologist and vaccinologist who was supposed to develop vaccines against anthrax.
However, many people doubt the government’s conclusions about Irvins. Some coworkers said they would have noticed him develop the anthrax that was used.
One historian believes the anthrax Irvins developed was stolen by an al-Qaida sympathizer at George Mason University because of lax security.
We will probably never know.
The cost of the cleanup to decontaminate buildings where anthrax was found was about $1 billion.
Hunting Osama bin Laden:
Osama bin Laden evaded capture for almost 10 years.
In the mean time the United States had engaged in wars in Iraq (looking for weapons of mass destruction) and in Afghanistan (against the Taliban who supported terrorism).
bin Laden was suspected of hiding out in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan
Early on the CIA sought to identify al-Qaeda couriers (messengers who pass information) who might have contact with bin Laden.
Detainees in the CIA’s secret prison system revealed the name of an al-Qaeda courier with the pseudonym Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti.
When No. 3 al-Qaeda leader Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was captured by the CIA he admitted knowing al-Kuwaiti, but said he was not operating in al-Qaeda. The CIA believed he was protecting the courier.
In 2004, a top operative for al-Qaeda was captured in Iraq named Hassan Ghul.
Ghul revealed to the CIA that al-Kuwaiti was indeed a key courier in the al-Qaida organization close to operational commander Faraj al-Libi.
In May 2005 Faraj al-Libi was captured by the CIA, but he adamantly denied that al-Kuwaiti was the secret courier.
This convinced the CIA that he, as well as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was protecting the identity of the courier.
After years, detainees revealed the real name of the courier al-Kuwaiti as Sheikh Abu Ahmed, a Pakistani born in Kuwait.
One detainee gave false information that Abu Ahmed was wounded fleeing U.S. forces and died in his arms.
But in the middle of 2010 Abu Ahmed used the telephone and his conversation was monitored by U.S. officials.
In August 2010 Abu Ahmed was tracked to the mysterious compound in Abbottabad.
It had unusually high walls.
No one came or went.
There was no telephone or internet. U.S. authorities became convinced that a high level terrorist was living there
